Cause, Result and Purpose

The connectors of cause and consequence, the so … that and such … that structures, and the ways of expressing an aim, with the grammar each one requires after it.

يتكوّن الدرس من 5 أجزاء: Expressing Cause، Expressing Result، So … that and Such … that، Expressing Purpose، Practice and Review.

Expressing Cause

1. The two families

Everything depends on what follows the connector: a whole clause (subject + verb) or a noun.

Getting this wrong is the commonest mistake in the written part.

2. The connectors followed by a clause

**because** — the ordinary, neutral cause: *He stayed at home **because** he was ill.*
**as** — a cause already known, often at the beginning: ***As** it was raining, we cancelled the match.*
**since** — like *as*, slightly more formal: ***Since** you are here, let us start.*
**for** — literary, always after the main clause and after a comma: *He said **nothing, for** he was afraid.*
**now that** — a cause that has just become true: ***Now that** you have your licence, you can drive.*
**seeing that** — a cause that is obvious: ***Seeing that** nobody answered, she left.*

3. The connectors followed by a noun

**because of** — the ordinary form: *The match was cancelled **because of** the rain.*
**due to** — formal, often after the verb *to be*: *His failure was **due to** a lack of work.*
**owing to** — formal, usually at the beginning: ***Owing to** the strike, the trains were late.*
**thanks to** — a **positive** cause only: ***Thanks to** her help, I finished on time.*
**on account of** — formal, written: *The flight was delayed **on account of** fog.*

Note that *thanks to* is never used for a bad result: you cannot say *thanks to the accident*.

4. Turning one into the other

To move from a clause to a noun, turn the verb into a noun.

5. Verbs and nouns of cause

to **cause**: *Smoking **causes** lung cancer.*
to **lead to**: *Corruption **leads to** poverty.*
to **result in**: *Overeating **results in** obesity.*
to **bring about**: *The reform **brought about** real change.*
to **be responsible for**: *Advertising **is responsible for** overconsumption.*
the **cause** of, the **reason** for, the **origin** of.

6. Practice

A. Choose *because* or *because of*.

The match was cancelled ______ the bad weather.
He did not come ______ he was ill.
______ the strike, there were no buses.
She was tired ______ she had worked all night.

B. Rewrite using the word in brackets.

He failed because he was careless. *(due to)*
Thanks to her advice, I avoided a mistake. *(because)*
The flight was delayed because there was thick fog. *(owing to)*

C. Join with a verb of cause.

Poor diet. / Obesity. *(lead to)*
Deforestation. / Climate change. *(result in)*

Expressing Result

1. The connectors

2. Punctuation

This is what the examiner checks.

**so** simply joins two clauses, preceded by a comma:

> *It was raining, so we stayed at home.*

**therefore, thus, consequently, as a result** are adverbs, not conjunctions. They need a **full stop or a semicolon** before them and a **comma** after:

> *It was raining. Therefore, we stayed at home.* > *It was raining; therefore, we stayed at home.*

Writing *It was raining, therefore we stayed at home* is the mistake to avoid.

3. Cause and result are two views of one fact

The same idea can be written from either end.

A rewriting question usually asks exactly this: give the same information starting from the other end.

4. Nouns and verbs of result

the **result**, the **consequence**, the **effect**, the **outcome**, the **impact**
to **result from** *(≠ to result in)*: *Obesity **results from** a poor diet.*
to **stem from**, to **arise from**, to **follow from**

Be careful with the pair:

*A **results in** B* — A is the cause.
*A **results from** B* — B is the cause.

5. Practice

A. Join the sentences with the connector in brackets, punctuating correctly.

The company polluted the river. / It was fined. *(consequently)*
He did not revise. / He failed. *(so)*
Counterfeit medicines are dangerous. / Their sale is punished. *(as a result)*

B. Rewrite expressing the same idea as a cause.

It was very hot, so we stayed indoors.
She had no ticket; therefore, she could not enter.

C. Choose *result in* or *result from*.

Overconsumption ______ serious health problems.
Many diseases ______ a lack of hygiene.

So … that and Such … that

Both structures express a result caused by an intensity: something is so strong that a consequence follows.

1. So … that

So goes with an adjective or an adverb — never with a noun.

> so + adjective / adverb + that + clause

The counterfeits are **so perfect that** it is difficult to tell them apart.
He spoke **so quickly that** nobody understood him.
The exam was **so difficult that** half the class failed.
She was **so tired that** she fell asleep at once.

2. Such … that

Such goes with a noun, with or without an adjective in front of it.

> such + (a / an) + adjective + noun + that + clause

It was **such a difficult exam that** half the class failed.
They are **such perfect copies that** nobody notices.
He is **such a good teacher that** all his pupils succeed.
It was **such bad weather that** the flight was cancelled.

Note the article: *such a difficult exam* (singular countable), but *such perfect copies* and *such bad weather* (plural or uncountable, no article).

3. Choosing between them

Ask one question: what comes next, an adjective alone or a noun?

Both sentences of each pair mean the same thing; only the grammar changes.

4. So with quantities

With *many, much, few, little*, English uses so, not *such*.

There were **so many** people **that** we could not enter.
He has **so much** work **that** he never rests.
We had **so little** time **that** we had to hurry.

But when a noun follows *a lot of*, we use such: *It was such a lot of work that…*

5. Related structures

**too … to**: *The box was **too heavy to** lift.* (a negative result)
**enough … to**: *He is old **enough to** vote.* (a sufficient condition)
Note the position: *too* before the adjective, *enough* **after** it.

> *She is too young to drive.* · *She is not old enough to drive.*

6. Practice

A. Complete with *so* or *such*.

It was ______ a long film that I fell asleep.
The water was ______ cold that nobody swam.
They made ______ much noise that the neighbours complained.
He is ______ an honest man that everybody trusts him.
The results were ______ surprising that they were checked twice.

B. Rewrite using the other structure.

The exercise was so easy that everybody finished it.
It was such a boring lecture that many students left.

C. Complete with *too* or *enough*.

This tea is ______ hot to drink.
He is not strong ______ to lift that box.

Expressing Purpose

Purpose answers the question *what for?* — the aim of an action, not its cause. Do not confuse the two: a cause comes before the action, a purpose comes after it.

1. Followed by a verb

The negative forms are in order not to and so as not to — never *to not*.

> *He left early so as not to be late.*

2. Followed by a clause

When the purpose has a different subject, English needs a clause with a modal.

> Same subject: *I revised to pass the exam.* > Different subject: *I explained again so that they could understand.*

3. Followed by a noun

**for** + noun: *This tool is **for** the repair of engines.*
**for** + **-ing**: *A telescope is used **for observing** the stars.*
the **aim / purpose / objective / goal** of: *The **aim of** the campaign is to reduce waste.*

4. Describing what something is used for

This is a grammar point of the astronomy unit and it comes back every year.

Note that *be used to* + stem means purpose, while *be used to* + -ing means "be accustomed to". The form of the verb changes everything:

> *The telescope is used to observe stars.* *(purpose)* > *Astronomers are used to working at night.* *(habit)*

5. Cause or purpose?

6. Practice

A. Complete with *to*, *in order to*, *so as not to* or *so that*.

She whispered ______ wake the baby.
I am writing ______ inform you of our decision.
He explained the rule twice ______ everybody could follow.
Take a map ______ get lost.

B. Rewrite using *so that*.

He spoke loudly to be heard by everyone.
She saved money to buy a computer for her son.

C. Say what each object is used for, in two ways.

a telescope — 2. a microscope — 3. a thermometer

Practice and Review

1. The three notions at a glance

With the same subject, purpose is expressed by a verb, neither a clause nor a noun: to / in order to / so as to + stem.

2. The classic mistakes

3. Mixed exercise

A. Fill in with the right connector.

The factory was closed ______ the pollution it caused.
He was ______ tired ______ he could not concentrate.
It was ______ a strong wind ______ several trees fell.
She studied hard ______ get a scholarship.
Prices increased sharply; ______, sales dropped.
______ nobody objected, the proposal was accepted.

B. Combine each pair, using the word in brackets.

The evidence was insufficient. / The case was dismissed. *(consequently)*
He wanted to avoid traffic. / He left at dawn. *(so as to)*
The copies are perfect. / Nobody can tell them apart. *(so … that)*
There was a power cut. / The lesson was interrupted. *(due to)*

C. Rewrite without changing the meaning.

He failed because he was careless.

→ His failure was due to

The film was so long that we left before the end.

→ It was such

She left early in order to catch the first train.

→ She left early so that

4. Answers to check yourself

A. 1. because of — 2. so … that — 3. such … that — 4. to / in order to — 5. consequently — 6. As / Since.

B. 1. The evidence was insufficient; consequently, the case was dismissed. — 2. He left at dawn so as to avoid traffic. — 3. The copies are so perfect that nobody can tell them apart. — 4. The lesson was interrupted due to a power cut.

C. 1. His failure was due to his carelessness. — 2. It was such a long film that we left before the end. — 3. She left early so that she could catch the first train.

الجزء الأول من الدرس مفتوح للجميع، وبقيته مع الاشتراك.

Cause, Result and Purpose

Expressing Cause

Expressing Cause

1. The two families

2. The connectors followed by a clause

3. The connectors followed by a noun

4. Turning one into the other

5. Verbs and nouns of cause

6. Practice

Expressing Result

Expressing Result

1. The connectors

2. Punctuation

3. Cause and result are two views of one fact

4. Nouns and verbs of result

5. Practice

So … that and Such … that

So … that and Such … that

1. So … that

2. Such … that

3. Choosing between them

4. So with quantities

5. Related structures

6. Practice

Expressing Purpose

Expressing Purpose

1. Followed by a verb

2. Followed by a clause

3. Followed by a noun

4. Describing what something is used for

5. Cause or purpose?

6. Practice

Practice and Review

Practice and Review

1. The three notions at a glance

2. The classic mistakes

3. Mixed exercise

4. Answers to check yourself

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